Volume 33, Issue 123 (April 2020)
IJN 2020, 33(123): 84-107 |
Back to browse issues page
Download citation:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
BibTeX | RIS | EndNote | Medlars | ProCite | Reference Manager | RefWorks
Send citation to:
Ghodratollahifard M, Chinaveh M, Aminimanesh S. Modeling of the Symptom Manifestation of Personality Disorders in Nursing Students and Temporary Nurses within the Human Research Project Based on Childhood Trauma and the Mediating Role of Emotional Cognitive Regulation. IJN 2020; 33 (123) :84-107
URL: http://ijn.iums.ac.ir/article-1-3222-en.html
URL: http://ijn.iums.ac.ir/article-1-3222-en.html
1- Depatmant of Psychology, Arsanjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Arsanjan, Iran
2- Depatmant of Psychology, Arsanjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Arsanjan, Iran (Corresponding author) Tel: 09177194031) Email: chinaveh@yahoo.com
3- Depatmant of Psychology, College of Economics and Management, Shiraz Branch ,Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran
2- Depatmant of Psychology, Arsanjan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Arsanjan, Iran (Corresponding author) Tel: 09177194031) Email: chinaveh@yahoo.com
3- Depatmant of Psychology, College of Economics and Management, Shiraz Branch ,Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran
Abstract: (2348 Views)
Background & Aims: According to the World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, millions of children are victims of abuse each year. Childhood trauma could be physical or psychological abuse, sexual abuse or neglect of a child by the guardian. Abuse has long-lasting and irreversible effects on the psyche of children, which may linger even through adulthood. Among the long-term psychological effects of childhood abuse are major behavioral and psychological disorders in adolescence and adulthood. Such an example is the onset of the symptoms of cluster C personality disorders, which encompass avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders, commonly characterized by anxiety, apprehension, and fear in the affected individuals. Cognitive emotional regulation is a variable that may be influenced by childhood trauma and lead to symptoms of personality disorders. Emotional regulation refers to the process through which an individual recognizes the emotions that are affecting them, how to experience these emotions, and their management. Recent findings suggest that even when child abuse is controlled, the problems associated with emotional regulation persist. Nurses constitute the largest portion of healthcare providers and affect the productivity and progress of the organization more than other hospital staff. In addition, the productivity of nurses ultimately leads to better decision-making in planning healthcare services. Therefore, assessing the predispositions of personality disorders in nursing students and temporary nurses within the program of human research project is paramount. One of these preconditions is the childhood traumas of the nursing students and temporary nurses within the program of human research project . The present study aimed to propose a model of childhood trauma and cognitive emotional regulation to help recognize cluster C personality disorders in the nursing students and temporary nurses within the program of human research project in 2019.
Materials & Methods: This cross-sectional, descriptive-correlational study was conducted on the nursing students of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in 2019 and the temporary nurses within the program of human research project in Shiraz, Iran. The inclusion criteria were consent to participate in the research, no history of psychological treatments for emotional disorders, no use of psychiatric medications for the reduction of anxiety, stress, and depression, living with parents, absence of specific chronic disorders affecting physical and mental health (e.g., migraine, severe lower back pain, diabetes, cardiac and renal diseases, and infertility), and normal course of life within six months before the investigation (i.e., no specific incidents or crisis such as the death of a loved one, an incurable disease of a family member, and change of residence). The subjects with incomplete questionnaires and those using psychiatric medications were excluded from the study. Data were collected using the self-report early trauma inventory-short form, cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire, and Millon clinical multiaxial inventory-III, which was completed in a self-report manner. During the completion of the questionnaires, the researcher, who was experienced in mental illness counseling, accompanied the participants to gain their trust and address their concerns in responding to the questions. The sample size of the study included 291 nursing students and employed nurses, which was estimated using the G-power software. The subjects were selected via simple cluster sampling. After providing the necessary explanations regarding the importance of the research and attracting sincere cooperation, the questionnaires were distributed among the students and nurses. Considering individual differences, the set time for the completion of the questionnaires was 15-30 minutes, and the questionnaires were received after completion. Data collection continued for one week and was performed at the hospital for the temporary nurses within the program of human research project with the coordination of the supervisor and at the nursing school for the senior nursing students. Data analysis was performed in SPSS version 22 using Pearson's correlation-coefficient to describe and analyze the statistical data. In addition, the AMOS-22 software was applied to determine the fit of the studied model based on the structural equation model and analyze the path of the observable variables. Notably, all the calculations were carried out at the statistical inference limit of P<0.05.
Results: Childhood general traumas, childhood physical abuse, and childhood sexual abuse could explain the obsessive-compulsive disorder in the nursing students both directly (P<0.01, P<0.0005, and P<0.0005, respectively) and indirectly through adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.01). Moreover, childhood physical abuse could explain the avoidant personality disorder of the students both directly (P<0.05) and indirectly through adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.05). Childhood physical abuse and childhood sexual abuse could explain the dependent personality disorder of the students both directly (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively) and indirectly through maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.05). The statistical findings also indicated that the obtained data supported the theoretical model of explaining personality disorders to a great extent, and all the indicators of fit confirmed that the proposed model is acceptable.
Conclusion: According to the results, the senior nursing students and employed nurses within the program of human research project who have been abused as children were more likely to present with symptoms of cluster C disorder in their behaviors in adulthood. Furthermore, cognitive emotional regulation strategies acted as a mediating variable in the association of childhood trauma and cluster C personality disorder; in other words, childhood trauma leads to emotional maladjustment in adulthood, and the lack of appropriate emotional regulation strategies could lead to the symptoms of cluster C personality disorder. Based on the findings, it is expected that training on cognitive emotional regulation strategies would act as an effective mechanism in the modification of cognitive emotional regulation and become an proper approach to the improvement of cluster C personality disorders in nursing students and employed nurses within the program of human research project, thereby preventing mental illnesses and personality disorders.
Materials & Methods: This cross-sectional, descriptive-correlational study was conducted on the nursing students of Shiraz University of Medical Sciences in 2019 and the temporary nurses within the program of human research project in Shiraz, Iran. The inclusion criteria were consent to participate in the research, no history of psychological treatments for emotional disorders, no use of psychiatric medications for the reduction of anxiety, stress, and depression, living with parents, absence of specific chronic disorders affecting physical and mental health (e.g., migraine, severe lower back pain, diabetes, cardiac and renal diseases, and infertility), and normal course of life within six months before the investigation (i.e., no specific incidents or crisis such as the death of a loved one, an incurable disease of a family member, and change of residence). The subjects with incomplete questionnaires and those using psychiatric medications were excluded from the study. Data were collected using the self-report early trauma inventory-short form, cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire, and Millon clinical multiaxial inventory-III, which was completed in a self-report manner. During the completion of the questionnaires, the researcher, who was experienced in mental illness counseling, accompanied the participants to gain their trust and address their concerns in responding to the questions. The sample size of the study included 291 nursing students and employed nurses, which was estimated using the G-power software. The subjects were selected via simple cluster sampling. After providing the necessary explanations regarding the importance of the research and attracting sincere cooperation, the questionnaires were distributed among the students and nurses. Considering individual differences, the set time for the completion of the questionnaires was 15-30 minutes, and the questionnaires were received after completion. Data collection continued for one week and was performed at the hospital for the temporary nurses within the program of human research project with the coordination of the supervisor and at the nursing school for the senior nursing students. Data analysis was performed in SPSS version 22 using Pearson's correlation-coefficient to describe and analyze the statistical data. In addition, the AMOS-22 software was applied to determine the fit of the studied model based on the structural equation model and analyze the path of the observable variables. Notably, all the calculations were carried out at the statistical inference limit of P<0.05.
Results: Childhood general traumas, childhood physical abuse, and childhood sexual abuse could explain the obsessive-compulsive disorder in the nursing students both directly (P<0.01, P<0.0005, and P<0.0005, respectively) and indirectly through adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.01). Moreover, childhood physical abuse could explain the avoidant personality disorder of the students both directly (P<0.05) and indirectly through adaptive and maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.05). Childhood physical abuse and childhood sexual abuse could explain the dependent personality disorder of the students both directly (P<0.001 and P<0.05, respectively) and indirectly through maladaptive cognitive emotional regulation styles (P<0.05). The statistical findings also indicated that the obtained data supported the theoretical model of explaining personality disorders to a great extent, and all the indicators of fit confirmed that the proposed model is acceptable.
Conclusion: According to the results, the senior nursing students and employed nurses within the program of human research project who have been abused as children were more likely to present with symptoms of cluster C disorder in their behaviors in adulthood. Furthermore, cognitive emotional regulation strategies acted as a mediating variable in the association of childhood trauma and cluster C personality disorder; in other words, childhood trauma leads to emotional maladjustment in adulthood, and the lack of appropriate emotional regulation strategies could lead to the symptoms of cluster C personality disorder. Based on the findings, it is expected that training on cognitive emotional regulation strategies would act as an effective mechanism in the modification of cognitive emotional regulation and become an proper approach to the improvement of cluster C personality disorders in nursing students and employed nurses within the program of human research project, thereby preventing mental illnesses and personality disorders.
Keywords: Child Abuse, Emotional Regulation, Personality Disorders, Compulsive Personality, Dependent Personality Disorder
Type of Study: Research |
Subject:
nursing
Received: 2020/01/20 | Accepted: 2020/04/23 | Published: 2020/04/23
Received: 2020/01/20 | Accepted: 2020/04/23 | Published: 2020/04/23
References
1. Grant BF, Hasin DS, Stinson FS, Dawson DA, Chou SP, Ruan WJ, Pickering RP. Prevalence, correlates, and disability of personality disorders in the United States: results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions. J Clin Psych. 2004;65(7):948-58. [DOI:10.4088/JCP.v65n0711] [PMID]
2. Daroff RB, Aminoff MJ. Encyclopedia of the neurological sciences. Academic press; 2014 Apr 29.
3. American Psychiatric Association (APA). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders 5th ed. Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013. [DOI:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596]
4. Barlow D, Durand V. Abnormal psychology: An integrative approach. Nelson Education; 2011 Feb 3.
5. Eskedal GA, Demetri JM. Etiology and treatment of cluster C personality disorders. J Ment Health Couns. 2006;28(1):1-7. [DOI:10.17744/mehc.28.1.7yjq6tabcexb1a6j]
6. Benjamin LS. Interpersonal diagnosis and treatment of personality disorders. Guilford Press; 2002 Dec 18.
7. Gratz KL, Tull MT, Reynolds EK, Bagge CL, Latzman RD, Daughters SB, Lejuez CW. Extending extant models of the pathogenesis of borderline personality disorder to childhood borderline personality symptoms: The roles of affective dysfunction, disinhibition, and self-and emotion-regulation deficits. Develop Psychopath. 2009;21(4):1263-91. [DOI:10.1017/S0954579409990150] [PMID] [PMCID]
8. Hageman TK, Francis AJ, Field AM, Carr SN. Links between childhood experiences and avoidant personality disorder symptomatology. Int J Psychol Psychol Ther. 2015;15(1):101-16.
9. Laporte L, Paris J, Guttman H, Russell J, Correa JA. Using a sibling design to compare childhood adversities in female patients with BPD and their sisters. Child maltreatment. 2012;17(4):318-29. [DOI:10.1177/1077559512461173] [PMID]
10. Vettese LC, Dyer CE, Li WL, Wekerle C. Does self-compassion mitigate the association between childhood maltreatment and later emotion regulation difficulties? A preliminary investigation. Int J Ment Health Addic. 2011;9(5):480-91. [DOI:10.1007/s11469-011-9340-7]
11. Briggs ES, Price IR. The relationship between adverse childhood experience and obsessive-compulsive symptoms and beliefs: the role of anxiety, depression, and experiential avoidance. J Anx Disord. 2009;23(8):1037-46. [DOI:10.1016/j.janxdis.2009.07.004] [PMID]
12. Bandelow T, Borwin Krause B, Wedekind J. Emotional maltreatment increases risk for personality disorders during early adulthood. Psychiat Res. 2005;134:169-79. [DOI:10.1016/j.psychres.2003.07.008] [PMID]
13. Stanhope M, Lancaster J. Foundations of nursing in the community, community oriented practice. 2nd ed. London: Mosby Elsevier. 2006.
14. Dong M, Anda RF, Felitti VJ, Dube SR, Williamson DF, Thompson TJ, Loo CM, Giles WH. The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child abuse & neglect. 2004;28(7):771-84. [DOI:10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008] [PMID]
15. Sedlak AJ, Mettenburg J, Basena M, Peta I, McPherson K, Greene A. Fourth national incidence study of child abuse and neglect (NIS-4). Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human Services. 2010;9:2010. [DOI:10.1037/e565022012-001]
16. Currie J, Spatz Widom C. Long-term consequences of child abuse and neglect on adult economic well-being. Child maltreatment. 2010;15(2):111-20. [DOI:10.1177/1077559509355316] [PMCID]
17. Miller-Perrin CL, Perrin RD. Child maltreatment: An introduction. Sage Publications; 2012. [DOI:10.1007/978-1-4614-7456-2_5]
18. Al-Anani HA. The Relationship between Parental Abuse and Psychological Safety of the Children at the City of Amman and the Central Valleys of Jordan. Int Educ Stud. 2015;8(1):46-58. [DOI:10.5539/ies.v8n1p46]
19. Kraaij V, Garnefski N. The behavioral emotion regulation questionnaire: development, psychometric properties and relationships with emotional problems and the cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire. Person Indiv Differ. 2019;137:56-61. [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2018.07.036]
20. Garnefski N, Kraaij V, Spinhoven P. Negative life events, cognitive emotion regulation and emotional problems. Person Indiv Differ. 2001;30(8):1311-27. [DOI:10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00113-6]
21. Southam-Gerow MA, Kendall PC. Emotion regulation and understanding: Implications for child psychopathology and therapy. Clin Psychol Rev. 2002;22(2):189-222. [DOI:10.1016/S0272-7358(01)00087-3]
22. Burns EE, Jackson JL, Harding HG. Child maltreatment, emotion regulation, and posttraumatic stress: The impact of emotional abuse. J Aggr Maltreat Trauma. 2010;19(8):801-19. [DOI:10.1080/10926771.2010.522947]
23. Pourshahriar H, Alizade H, Rajaeinia K. Childhood Emotional Abuse and Borderline Personality Disorder Features: The Mediating Roles of Attachment Style and Emotion Regulation. Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology. 2018;24(2):148-63. [DOI:10.32598/ijpcp.24.2.148]
24. Carr S, Francis A. Childhood maltreatment and adult personality disorder symptoms in a non‐clinical sample. Australian Psychologist. 2009;44(3):146-55. [DOI:10.1080/00050060903136847]
25. Bierer LM, Yehuda R, Schmeidler J, Mitropoulou V, New AS, Silverman JM, Siever LJ. Abuse and neglect in childhood: relationship to personality disorder diagnoses. CNS spectrums. 2003;8(10):737-54. [DOI:10.1017/S1092852900019118] [PMID]
26. Bijari AF, Hosseini SH, Nasiri M. The Relationship between Childhood Trauma, Attachment Style and Self-Knowledge in People with Borderline Personality Disorder. Journal of Babol University of Medical Sciences. 2016;18(7):14-8.
27. Moosavihondori T, Mahmoud-Alilou M, Madani Y. Structural Relationship between Child Abuse and Emotion Dysregulation with Symptoms of Borderline Personality Disorder. Journal of Psychology. 2018;22:188-201.
28. Mahdavi Aghdam MR, Mahmoud Aliloo M, Rezaee O. Relationship between different types of childhood abuse and cluster B personality disorders. Urmia Med J. 2013;24(3):210-8.
29. Khanjani Z, Husseininasab SD, Kazemi A, Panahali A. Attachment Styles and Personality Disorders: An Analysis of the Relationship between Insecure Attachment Style and Cluster B and C Personality Disorders. Clinical Psychology Studies. 2012; 2(7): 103-26.
30. Kuo JR, Khoury JE, Metcalfe R, Fitzpatrick S, Goodwill A. An examination of the relationship between childhood emotional abuse and borderline personality disorder features: The role of difficulties with emotion regulation. Child abuse & neglect. 2015;39:147-55. [DOI:10.1016/j.chiabu.2014.08.008] [PMID]
31. Hosseini MA, Farzadmehr M, noorabadi Z, alamdarloo A. Relationship between happiness and productivity among nurses. Quarterly Journal of Nursing Management. 2016;5(2):59-65. [DOI:10.29252/ijnv.5.2.59]
32. Godin I, Kittel F. Differential economic stability and psychosocial stress at work: associations with psychosomatic complaints and absenteeism. Soc Sci Med. 2004;58(8):1543-53. [DOI:10.1016/S0277-9536(03)00345-9]
33. Ghaddar A, Mateo I, Sanchez P. Occupational stress and mental health among correctional officers: a cross‐sectional study. J Occup Health. 2008;50(1):92-8. [DOI:10.1539/joh.50.92] [PMID]
34. Bremner JD, Vermetten E, Mazure CM. Development and preliminary psychometric properties of an instrument for the measurement of childhood trauma: the Early Trauma Inventory. Depression and anxiety. 2000;12(1):1-12.
https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6394(2000)12:1<1::AID-DA1>3.0.CO;2-W [DOI:10.1002/1520-6394(2000)12:13.0.CO;2-W]
35. Jeon JR, Lee EH, Lee SW, Jeong EG, Kim JH, Lee D, Jeon HJ. The early trauma inventory self report-short form: psychometric properties of the Korean version. Psychiatry investigation. 2012;9(3):229-35. [DOI:10.4306/pi.2012.9.3.229] [PMID] [PMCID]
36. Aminabadi Z. Factor structure and validation of the Cognitive Emotion Regulation Questionnaire. Int J Behav Sci. 2012;5(4):365-71.
37. Millon T, Davis RD. Manual for the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III. Minneapolis. MN: National Computer Systems. 1994.
38. Sharifi AA, Molavi H, Namdari K. Diagnostic validity of Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III. Science and Research in Psychology. 2007;34:27-38.
39. Hooper D, Coughlan J, Mullen MR. Structural Equation Modelling: Guidelines for Determining Model Fit. Electr J Bus Res Meth. 2008; 6(1): 53-60.
40. Battle CL, Shea MT, Johnson DM, Yen S, Zlotnick C, Zanarini MC, Sanislow CA, Skodol AE, Gunderson JG, Grilo CM, McGlashan TH. Childhood maltreatment associated with adult personality disorders: findings from the Collaborative Longitudinal Personality Disorders Study. J Person Dis. 2004;18(2):193-211. [DOI:10.1521/pedi.18.2.193.32777] [PMID]
41. Lavasani AA, Soltani MA. Association between Maltreatment in Childhood and Emotional Divorce: Mediating Role of Attachment Styles, Early Maladaptive Schemas and Difficulty in Emotional Regulation. JHPM. 2017;6(4):49-58. [DOI:10.21859/jhpm-07027]
42. Nazari H, Farhadi A. Predicting Depression Symptoms Following Childhood Psychological Maltreatment: The Mediating Role of Early Maladaptive Schemas and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation. Journal of Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences. 2016;26(136):85-98.
43. Asgarpour F, Karbalaei-Miguni A, Taghilu S. The mediating role of childhood injury in the relationship between parenting styles and adaptive cognitive emotion regulation in working children. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2016; 9(1): 103-21.
44. Christoffersen MN, Poulsen HD, Nielsen A. Attempted suicide among young people: risk factors in a prospective register based study of Danish children born in 1966. Acta Psychiat Scandin. 2003;108(5):350-8. [DOI:10.1034/j.1600-0447.2003.00165.x] [PMID]
45. Robinson LR. Relations between parenting, family context, and emotion regulation in the development of psychopathology in young maltreated children. Master of Science Dissertations, University of New Orleans. 2006.
46. Hébert M, Langevin R, Oussaïd E. Cumulative childhood trauma, emotion regulation, dissociation, and behavior problems in school-aged sexual abuse victims. J Affec disord. 2018;225:306-12. [DOI:10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.044] [PMID] [PMCID]
47. Jang KI, Lee SH, Huh HJ, Chae JH. Influence of the 5-HT3A receptor gene polymorphism and childhood sexual trauma on central serotonin activity. PloS one. 2015;10(12):e0145269. [DOI:10.1371/journal.pone.0145269] [PMID] [PMCID]
48. Johnson JG, Cohen P, Brown J, Smailes EM, Bernstein DP. Childhood maltreatment increases risk for personality disorders during early adulthood. Arch General Psych. 1999;56(7):600-6. [DOI:10.1001/archpsyc.56.7.600] [PMID]
49. Gibb BE, Wheeler R, Alloy LB, Abramson LY. Emotional, physical, and sexual maltreatment in childhood versus adolescence and personality dysfunction in young adulthood. J Person Disord. 2001;15(6):505-11. [DOI:10.1521/pedi.15.6.505.19194] [PMID]
50. Trull TJ, Widiger TA, Lynam DR, Costa Jr PT. Borderline personality disorder from the perspective of general personality functioning. Focus. 2005;112(3):193-464. [DOI:10.1176/foc.3.3.453]
51. Lobbestael J, Arntz A. Emotional, cognitive and physiological correlates of abuse-related stress in borderline and antisocial personality disorder. Behav Res Therapy. 2010;48(2):116-24. [DOI:10.1016/j.brat.2009.09.015] [PMID]
52. Ireland MJ, Clough BA, Day JJ. The cognitive emotion regulation questionnaire: Factorial, convergent, and criterion validity analyses of the full and short versions. Person Individ Differ. 2017;110:90-5. [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2017.01.035]
53. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Blair EW, Sonja L. Rethinking rumination. Perspec Psycholog Sci, 2008; 3(5): 400-24. [DOI:10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x] [PMID]
54. Seligman M, Rosenhan D, Walker A. Psychopathology (Volume II). Translated by Reza Rostami, Ali Niloufari and Mina Ghobad. Tehran: Nasl e Fara. 2011.
55. Alink LR, Cicchetti D, Kim J, Rogosch FA. Mediating and moderating processes in the relation between maltreatment and psychopathology: Mother-child relationship quality and emotion regulation. J Abnor Child Psychol. 2009;37(6):831-43. [DOI:10.1007/s10802-009-9314-4] [PMID] [PMCID]
56. Kam CM, Greenberg MT, Bierman KL, Coie JD, Dodge KA, Foster ME, Lochman JE, McMahon RJ, Pinderhughes EE, Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. Maternal depressive symptoms and child social preference during the early school years: Mediation by maternal warmth and child emotion regulation. J Abnor Child Psychol. 2011;39(3):365-77. [DOI:10.1007/s10802-010-9468-0] [PMID] [PMCID]
57. Supplee LH, Skuban EM, Shaw DS, Prout J. Emotion regulation strategies and later externalizing behavior among European American and African American children. Develop Psychopathol. 2009;21(2):393-415. [DOI:10.1017/S0954579409000224] [PMID] [PMCID]
58. Brophy-Herb HE, Zajicek-Farber ML, Bocknek EL, McKelvey LM, Stansbury K. Longitudinal connections of maternal supportiveness and early emotion regulation to children's school readiness in low-income families. J Society Social Work Res. 2013;4(1):2-19. [DOI:10.5243/jsswr.2013.1]
59. Samuelson KW, Krueger CE, Wilson C. Relationships between maternal emotion regulation, parenting, and children's executive functioning in families exposed to intimate partner violence. J Interpers Violence. 2012;27(17):3532-50. [DOI:10.1177/0886260512445385] [PMID]
60. Bratec SM, Xie X, Schmid G, Doll A, Schilbach L, Zimmer C, Wohlschläger A, Riedl V, Sorg C. Cognitive emotion regulation enhances aversive prediction error activity while reducing emotional responses. Neuroimage. 2015;123:138-48. [DOI:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2015.08.038] [PMID]
61. Horwitz AV, Widom CS, McLaughlin J, White HR. The impact of childhood abuse and neglect on adult mental health: A prospective study. J Health Social Behav. 2001:184-201. [DOI:10.2307/3090177] [PMID]
62. Basta SM, Peterson RF. Perpetrator status and the personality characteristics of molested children. Child Abuse Neg. 1990;14(4):555-66. [DOI:10.1016/0145-2134(90)90103-Z]
63. Hawkins JD, Catalano RF, Miller JY. Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological bulletin. 1992;112(1):64. [DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.64] [PMID]
64. Harter SL, Taylor TL. Parental alcoholism, child abuse, and adult adjustment. J Subst Abuse. 2000;11(1):31-44. [DOI:10.1016/S0899-3289(99)00018-8]
65. Wilson HW, Samuelson SL, Staudenmeyer AH, Widom CS. Trajectories of psychopathology and risky behaviors associated with childhood abuse and neglect in low-income urban African American girls. Child Abuse Negl. 2015;45:108-21. [DOI:10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.009] [PMID]
66. Vilhena-Churchill N, Goldstein AL. Child maltreatment and marijuana problems in young adults: Examining the role of motives and emotion dysregulation. Child Abuse Negl. 2014;38(5):962-72. [DOI:10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.10.009] [PMID]
67. Homaeenejad H, Karbalaeemohammadmeigouni A, Taghiloo S. The Structural Model of Childhood Trauma, Cognitive Emotion Regulation Strategies and Borderline Personality symptoms. Journal of Clinical Psychology. 2019; 10(3): 35-48.
68. Potthoff S, Garnefski N, Miklósi M, Ubbiali A, Domínguez-Sánchez FJ, Martins EC, Witthöft M, Kraaij V. Cognitive emotion regulation and psychopathology across cultures: A comparison between six European countries. Person Indiv Differ. 2016;98:218-24. [DOI:10.1016/j.paid.2016.04.022]
69. Hasani J, Miraghaie AM. The relationship between strategies for cognitive regulation of emotions and suicidal ideation. Contemporary Psychology, Biannual Journal of the Iranian Psychological Association. 2012;7(1):61-72.
| Rights and permissions | |
 |
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License. |
Copyright © The Author(s);
This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC-By-NC), which permits use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited and is not used for commercial purposes.
Contact Information
